Inducing ametropias in hatchling chicks by defocus—Aperture effects and cylindrical lenses

Light-weight translucent plastic goggles with convex or concave rigid contact lens inserts were applied unilaterally to the eyes of young chicks. Convex and concave cylindrical lenses produced astigmatic refractive errors. The magnitude of the induced astigmatism was less than that of the inducing lens and varied with axis orientation. Decreased aperture size or interruption of the defocus resulted in a decreased response to refractive defocus. Slit apertures and spherical defocus produced variable amounts of myopia, hyperopia and astigmatism. Choroidal changes (increased thickness) were observed only in birds developing hyperopia or recovering from myopia.